School Lunch Politics by Susan Levine Read Free Book Online Page B

1946March 28, 1946 (hereafter Congressional Record), February 26, 1946, p. 1610.
    20. Senate Hearings, 1944, p. 36.
    21. Ibid., 23. Also see Harvey Levenstein, Paradox ofPlenty: A Social History of Eating in Modern America (Berkley: University of California Press, 2003), esp. 78.
    22. Alonzo L. Hamby, Liberalism and Its Challengers: From F.D.R. to Bush, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), 246.
    23. Gilbert C. Fite, Richard B. Russell, Jr., Senator from Georgia (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1991), 496.
    24. Hamby, Liberalism and its Challengers, 245.
    25. Fite, Richard Russell, 187.
    26. Thomas A. Becnel, Senator Allen Ellender of Louisiana: A Biography (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1996), 142.
    27. Allen Ellender to Mr. R. O. Moncla (secretary of the Lafourche Parish school board), March 1, 1947, Allen J. Ellender Archives, Folder 39, Box 624 School Lunch, Ellender Memorial Library, Thibodaux, La.
    28. Jerry Voorhis, Confessions ofa Congressman (Garden City, N.Y.: Double day, 1947), 144.
    29. Ibid., 339.
    30. See Ira Katznelson, “Limiting Liberalism: The Southern Veto in Congress, 1933–1950,” Political Science Quarterly 108, no. 2 (Summer 1993): 283–306 286.
    31. Paul E. Mertz, New Deal Policy and Southern Rural Poverty (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1978), 105.
    32. Robert C. Lieberman, Shifting the Color Line: Race and the American Welfare State (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1998), argues that Southern support for the New Deal was “of two minds.” Southerners were “wary of expanding federal power, especially in social policy,” but at the same time they “desperately needed New Deal largesse” (37).
    33. Congressional Record, February 26, 1946, p. 1626.
    34. Congressional Record, February 19, 1946, p. 1465.
    35. Ibid., p. 1460.
    36. Congressional Record, February 26, 1946, p. 1610.
    37. Senate Hearings, 1944, p. 29.
    38. House Hearings, 1945, p. 29. Cooley was in the Senate from 1934 to 1967. He chaired the Agriculture Committee in the 81st, 82nd, and 84th to 89th Congresses.
    39. Congressional Record, February 19, 1946, p. 1451.
    40. Ibid., p. 1467. Gwynne served in the House from 1935 to 1949.
    41. Ibid.
    42. Ibid., p. 1460.
    43. House Hearings, 1945, p. 252; “School Luncheons Restored by House,” NYT, June 2, 1944; “School Lunch Cost Assailed in House,” NYT, February 20, 1946; and “House Votes Fund for School Meals,” NYT, February 22, 1946.
    44. “School Lunch Cost Assailed in House,” NYT, February 20, 1941.
    45. Congressional Record, February 26, 1946, p. 1611.
    46. Congressional Record, February 19, 1946, p. 1454.
    47. This strategy, later dubbed “the Powell Amendment,” attracted considerable controversy both among liberals generally and within the civil rights movement. Charles V. Hamilton, Adam Clayton Powell, Jr.: The Political Biography of an American Dilemma (New York: Atheneum, 1991), 225–27. Three years after the school lunch debate, the NAACP adopted an official policy of opposing federal financial support for segregated facilities. This strategy was opposed by groups, including the National Council of Negro Women, particularly when it came to public housing legislation. According to Hamilton, some groups “knew that if an anti-segregation amendment were attached … this would lose the political support of Southerners who wanted the money but not the desegregation, as well as conservatives who hated any federal support for social programs.” They feared an anti-segregation amendment would thus kill the legislation entirely. Hamilton suggests that Powell first introduced his amendment in 1950 to a federal aid to education bill. He says Powell’s amendment simply stipulated that federal funds “should be distributed without discrimination” and argues that this “did not satisfy the NAACP at all.” The